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THEORY&CRITIQUE
7
www.theargus.org
DECEMBER4,2006
SuspiciononU.S.hegemony
Professor’sopinion
Trustsocietyandanti-corruption
ManyquestionsareraisedonthepersistenceoftheU.S.’scontrol
intheUnitedKingdom
T
prisoners.
9.11 tragedy and hegemony of hard-
American hegemony. However, there are
he society of the United Kingdom
economic success, countries that are
ByNamSeok-ho
Wallerstein views the fall of American
liners
other opinions as well. In resolving
has gradually changed over the last
relativelyhighonachievementmotivation
ReporterofTheory&CritiqueSection
dominationfromalonghistoricperspective.
Americans are unable to understand why
internationalproblems,peacefulmethodsare
half century. With cultural and
and low on access to appropriate means
He claims that the world system of
theunprecedentedtragedyof9.11occurred,
chosen more often than extreme
institutional development in the UK,
for economic success have a higher level
T
he entire world has become tense after
American capitalism has already entered its
and therefore had to take a military
confrontations. Taking into consideration
many autonomous and voluntary
of corruption. In other words, the less
North Korea’s nuclear tests. Immanuel
structural crisis of its final phases and
hegemonicriskledbythehard-linersinthe
that the U.S. is participating in peaceful
community organizations have improved
affluent countries with the high
Wallerstein, a professor at Yale University,
believesthatwearelivinginachaoticworld
Bush administration. In order to suppress
methods for resolving conflicts, the
thequalityoflifeinthecentralandlocal
achievement motivation for high income
statedthatNorthKorea’snucleartestwasan
between our dissipating current system and
authoritarian nations such as Afghanistan
leadership of the U.S. has not yet begun to
community. The interest groups of
have a higher level of corruption, while
incident that clearly showed the fall of the
the formation of a new system. Based on
and Iraq, the U.S. used a great amount of
diminish. Joseph S. Nye, professor at Yale
voluntary organizations from large
the affluent countries with the low
U.S. hegemony and suggested that they
this,herecognizesthattheworldhegemony
military power, despite the opposition from
University, stated “The only nation that
national organizations to small local
achievementmotivationofmaterialdesire
should be prepared for the dawn of a multi
enjoyed by the U.S. was a long process
itsallies.Thispointexactlyshowsevidence
practices major influence in the structural
community groups, which are a growing
have a low level of corruption, like the
polar system. According to him, American
which started with the global economic
that American hegemony is diminishing. If
authorityrelationshipsbetweeninternational
membership of over 3,500 in 2004, have
case of Iceland, Finland, New Zealand,
hegemony has been on the decline for the
stagnation in 1873, and though the U.S.
theU.S.wastheundisputedhegemony;the
relations is the U.S. and it is beginning its
soughttoinfluenceparties,legislatorsand
andtheUK.
past 30 years and such declination has
succeeded as a hegemonic nation, it also
UN,Europeandallofitsglobalalliesshould
ascent once again.” He also claimed,
administrators in order to implant their
Also, in a broad sense, the purpose of
become even faster in the past five years.
created the conditions for this hegemony to
begivingtheirfullsupportandtheproblem
“America has a dominating structural
intentions and policies for improving the
institutionaldevelopmentintheUKbased
Therefore, the U.S. focused on slowing the
become destroyed, showing his unique
shouldhavebeensolvedthroughdiplomatic
authorityinsecurity,production,financeand
qualityoflifeinsocialmembers.
onliberal-pluralistperspectiveistoprotect
speedofdeclineforthepast30yearsandin
conceptions.
powers alone, without having to resort to
intellect, which forms the structure of
The UK is regarded as a trust society
thesocialrightofindividualsandachieve
thepastfiveyears,theU.S.concentratedon
military force. In short, Wallerstein argues
political economics.” He added, “The
with a lower rank in the perception of
solidarity between social members. For
preventing the proliferation of Weapons of
America’s blind spots revealed in
that the U.S. has lost its political and
diminished American hegemony can be
corruption. The Corruption Perceptions
example, the policies of Thatcher’s
MassDestruction(WMD).
historicsituations
economic strength, which at its peak
basedonthepoliticalsystemwithintheU.S.,
Index (CPI) ranks 159 countries in 2005.
government focus on the accentuation of
TheU.S.waspartlysuccessfulfrom1972
Fromalong-termperspective,Wallerstein
dominated the world, and instead is
but the American influence in major
ThecountryrankoftheUnitedKingdom
middle class stressing solidarity, private
to 2000. However, since 2000, the U.S.
follows the path of the rise and fall of
maintaining its position as a superpower
internationalresultshavenotdiminishedand
is 11. In the case of higher-income
management and tax cut based on the
utterlyfailedinpreventingNorthKorea,Iran
American hegemony. In 1945, after WWII,
only through its military strength. The risk
is continuing.” Also, economic power,
countriessuchastheUSA,Germanyand
principleofmarketsystemandindividual
and Iraq in their search for nuclear
the U.S. based on strong economic and
taken by the hard-liners in the military
whichwaspointedouttobethecauseofthe
Japan,therehasbeenahigherrankinthe
liberty, and welfare policy through
capabilities.HestatedthatNorthKoreahas
military power, appeared as a hegemonic
hegemony, which led the Bush
fall of the U.S. hegemony has grown and
perception of corruption, compared with
flexiblelabourmarket.Also,thepolicyof
alreadybecomenucleararmedandthatIran
nationinthecapitalistworldsystem.
administration’sforeignpolicies,canalsobe
therefore, the growth of the American
theUK.
Tony Blair’s government includes a
willfollowsuit.Inaddition,hepredictedthat
Wallerstein’s unique notion here is that,
interpretedasanattempttoreversethefallof
economyreflectsthattheU.S.hegemonyis
The crisis of national trust is, as a
universalisticprinciplefor“amiddle-class
by2015,notonlyNorthKorea,but20to25
the growth of America as a hegemonic
Americanhegemony.Hard-liners,whowere
continuing. However, it still has trade
whole, originated from corruption. A
welfare,”whichhasledtotheconstruction
nations including South Korea and Japan
nationalsocreatedtheconditionsforthefall
uncomfortable with the continuously
deficits. In spite of trade deficits, prospects
corruptactviolatesthenormsofdutyand
of solidarity, a cooperation between state
will also be nuclear armed. In addition, he
ofthathegemony.
diminishing power of the U.S. since the
for American hegemony are bright because
enterprisesandprivatecompanies,andthe
TransparencyInternational
said that within 20 to 30 years, the Korean
Hepointsoutthefoursymbolsthatshow
1970s,took9.11asanopportunitytorealize
the economy is recovering and import,
combination of the policy of flexible and
CorruptionPerceptionsIndex2005
PeninsulaaswellasChinaandTaiwanwill
the display process of the fall of its
its military hegemony with the desire to
exports are increasing every year. Increases
positive labor market. Consequently, a
become unified, and the companion
hegemony in the “Vietnam War”, “1968
dominate the world. However, though it
of import and export represent a large
trust society, which can be generated by
Country
Country/
2005
relationship between China and Japan, who
revolution”, “fall of Communism” and
seemedthattheU.S.waswinningthewaron
marketandabundantpurchasingpowers.In
Rank
territory
CPIScore
the institutional policies to produce
arefightingfortheregionaldomination,will
“9.11.” He explained America as a
terror,itwasfacedwithacriticalobstaclein
other words, the U.S. has the economic
solidarity between social members, has
Netherlands
become much stronger. He stated, “There
“Superpower without true power, a world
Iraq. The Iraqis, whom the U.S. claims to
powersincludingproduction,commerceand
inducedtheactofanti-corruption.
11
United
8.6
are worries that North Korean nuclear
leaderthatnobodyfollowsorevenrespects,
have freed the people from Hussein’s
finance,whicharerequiredforhegemonies,
Corruption is by no means “a natural
Kingdom
proliferationwillimmediatelybringabouta
and a nation dangerously drifting about in
dictatorship, have begun to fight the
andhasopeneditsmarketstoothernations,
disaster.”Itcanbearguedthatthepolicy
13
Luxembourg
8.5
nucleararmsraceinNortheastAsiaandalso
the global chaos that it cannot control.” In
Americans using guerilla tactics after Bush
while also having the market powers in
ofanti-corruptioninvolvesthetwoaspects
14
Canada
8.4
cause insecurity” and added, “It is the grim
other words, he is saying that though the
declaredtheendofthewar,andhasbecome
which other nations can depend upon.
ofinstitutionandculture.Theinstitutional
15
HongKong
8.3
reality which was caused by the loss of the
U.S. has great military strength, it does not
a widely spread resistance movement.
Hence,theAmericanmarketisactingasthe
aspect is the reform of administrative
16
Germany
8.2
U.S.hegemony.”
have the self-control to control it. In
Togetherwiththis,theworldmedia,aswell
world market, and also is displaying its
system to prevent corruption, while the
17
USA
7.6
addition,thereisnonationorpoweryetthat
as the American press have constantly
abilities to distribute international public
cultural aspect is the advancement of
18
France
7.5
Immanuel Wallerstein’s World System
cancontrolthismilitarymightefficiently.
pushedBushtowardsadversedirections.
suppliesasahegemonicnation.Inaddition,
social value and value system of anti-
19
Belgium.Ireland
7.4
theory
The U.S. is gradually changing into an
there are many super-sized capital
corruption. As it can be acknowledged
21
Chile.Japan
7.3
The world-renowned scholar and the
existence that is dangerous to the rest of
Conclusion
companies and financial agencies that can
that corruption is usually derived from
23
Spain
7.0
leader of the U.S. left wing intellectuals,
humanity.Basedonthis,theissueofhowto
WallersteinforcefullyclaimsthattheU.S.
command the global economy. The U.S. is
institutional failure and individual
ImmanuelWallerstein,suggestedAmerica’s
control and manage the diminishing power
willonedaybegintofall.Hearguesthatthe
also leading the globalization of finances,
accountability. Generally speaking, the
corruption, the prevention of corruption
currentstateas“Thebeginningoftheendof
of the U.S. is not only going to affect
U.S. has lost its political and economic
andduetothis,fundsaroundtheworldare
form of corruption is a breach of trust.
actionhas,toagreatextent,beenattained
U.S. hegemony has already started, and the
Americansbutthefateofallpeoplearound
strength, which at its peak dominated the
beingchanneledtowardstheU.S..TheU.S.
Accordingly,ahightrustsociety,whichis
by both cultural advancement and
U.S. is nothing but an eagle that has been
the globe. Moreover, people living in areas
world, and instead, is maintaining its
is continuing to grow, but only at a slower
attained by social cooperation, has
institutionaldevelopmentintheUK.
forced to land.” Though the U.S. invaded
such as Palestine, Iraq, Islamic nations and
position as a superpower only through its
speed. The fall of American hegemony
contributed to induce the act of anti-
Iraqonthegroundsof“waragainstterror,”
also the Korean Peninsula where American
military strength. On this context, the risk
seemslikeasomethinginthefarfuture.
corruption. It has been suggested that the
itsmainpretenseofwar,whichwasWMD,
hegemony can create a national tragedy
taken by the hard-liners in the military
attainment of trust society in the UK has
Prof.YunEun-gee
didnotexist,andhaschangedlongagotoa
cannot be unconcerned about the fate of
hegemony, which led the Bush
mainly been achieved by the cultural
“dirtywar”throughtheal-Fallujahmassacre
AmericaandAmericans.
administration’sforeignpolicies,canalsobe
development. According to Merton’s
DepartmentofEnglishLiterature
and the shocking sexual abuse against Iraqi
interpretedasanattempttoreversethefallof
zorro@hufs.ac.kr
theory, in cultures pursuing strong
Graduatestudentscompeteon
EffortstoreachOpenSociety
internationalstudies
Necessitytoacceptvariousopinions
theOpenSocietytheory.TheOpenSociety
to the truth. Because people have different
reforms that oppose the intent of the rulers,
ByNamSeok-ho
theory is a society based on the theory of
ideas and interests, a system that can allow
withouthavingtoresorttoviolence.
ReporterofTheory&CritiqueSection
gradualsocialengineering,whereexcluding
them to peacefully coexist was needed, and
some physical and social necessities, all
thissystemshouldprotectthepeople’srights
Society that trusts rationality and
C
omplication and confrontation have
possibilities are open to humanity. Unlike
andguaranteetheirfreedomofselectionand
criticism
beenarisingfromproblemsofacertain
historicism, which did not recognize the
freedomofpress.Poppercalledthiskindof
Popper states that only an Open Society
situationoccurringineverywhere.Underthis
autonomy of humanity, he was convinced
society an “Open Society.” In other words,
can guarantee a life fitting to a human and
situation, a question arises whether various
that social engineering could permit
totalitarian ideologies were the enemy of
also suggests the possibility that a better
opinions can really be expressed and
humanitytopioneerhisorher,owndestiny.
OpenSociety.
society can be created through rationality
discussed freely. On this, it is needed to
An Open Society is an individualistic
instead of violence. Shin Jung-seob, a
notice two theories, Closed Society from
society. A society where the individual can
PeopleinOpenSociety
professor of philosophy at Kangwon
MarxandOpenSocietyfromPopper.
maketheirowndecisionsandberesponsible
Popperwasconfidentthatthefuturerested
University,stated,“WheninterpretingOpen
for their own actions, a society that can
in the hands of people. This also represents
Society from a political perspective,
Introduction
accommodate reasonable critical power,
that people are responsible for everything.
conflicting opinions could be openly
Acommunistnation,asdefinedbyMarx,
humanitarian society, society that competes
He claimed, “It is our duty to become
expressed and different objectives can be
LeeHyae-myung/TheArgus
canbecalledasaClosedSocietybecauseit
(ethically) for higher positions, society
optimists.”Thefutureisopened.Thefuture
pursued in various ways in this type of
KimEugene(GS-06)isgivingapresentationonnegativecampaignsoftheU.S.
doesnotresolveproblemsthroughcriticism
where behavioral ranges are not fixed. In
has not yet been determined. Therefore, the
pluralisticsociety.PeopleinOpenSocieties
election.
and discussions, but rather believed that an
other words, it is against historicism that
future cannot be predicted. The possibilities
must consider themselves as people with
ideal society could be constructed through
justifies individual sacrifices for historical
in the future are boundless. This kind of
rationalresponsibilitiesanddesigntheirown
mobilize Voters?” with the examples of
revolution.Inaddition,Marxconcludedthat
necessities.
statement from Popper represents that not
lives and take responsibilities for their
ByLeeHyae-myung
the former U.S. presidential eleciton.
there was a consistent law of history and
A Closed Society is a totalitarian society.
onlyisthefutureopened,butpeoplemustdo
decisions.” He also added that “In an Open
EditorialConsultant
Lastly, a presentation of three students in
emphasizeditsabsoluteness.Inshort,itisa
A society where individual behavior is
allintheirpowerinorderforhumankindto
Society, conflicting opinions are resolved
departmentofChineseAreaStudies,Park
disprovablecultscience.Moreover,hisideal
determinedbyagroup,anartisticsociety,a
contribute in the future. All people are
through discussions and debates. Therefore,
A
n annual academic contest of
Kyung-eun(GS-06),OhEun-kyeong(GS-
communist nation could be accomplished
racial society, a society where (ethical)
responsibleofwhatwillcomeinthefuture.
therighttofreespeechforeveryonemustbe
Graduate School of International
06) and Im Sang-kyu (GS-02), explained
onlythroughrevolution,butultimatelythisis
competitionisnotpermittedbetweenclasses,
The duties of human are not to predict the
ensured.” An “Open Society” is a society
AreaStudiestookplaceatthelectureroom
about the textile war between China and
only a mistaken expectation to immediately
violent conflicts, society where behavioral
misfortunesofthefuture,buttofightagood
that respects individual rights and freedom
of Faculty Office Building, on November
theU.S..
transferanentiresocietytoreachsomekind
rangeisidenticalwithnaturallaws.
fightforabetterworld,andratherthanbeing
and where their intention is reflected in
24. Among the five participating teams,
Afterallthepresentationswerefinished,
of ideal state. In particular, Popper stressed
predictors, they must be creators of the fate
society. It is a society in which individuals
three teams gave a presentation while the
timeforquestionandanswerwasarranged
thefactthatacompletesocietycannotexist.
Popper’scriticalrationalism
of mankind. The future depends on the
canmaketheirowndecisions.Astandardis
other twoteams Gwak Beom-seok (GS-
for deeper understanding of the audience.
Headvisedtodiscardthedreamofcreatinga
Thebasicidealofcriticalrationalismisto
people’s will and effort. Constructing a
made by people and it is a society which
06) with “Albania 2006,” Lee Jeong-eun
The ranking of the contenders were
safe society at once through revolution, but
be prepared to listen to critical arguments,
bettertomorrowistherightandthedutyof
understands it. Also, government policies
(GS-06)with“ThePolicyandtheStatusof
announcedbyKimSi-hong,aseniorhead
insteademphasizedthatgradualeffortsmust
findwhatone’swrongsare,andtohavethe
humans.
should not be closed to criticism, but must
Chinese Women” just published their
professor of Graduate School of
be taken in order to make the world better
attitudetolearnfromthatmistake.
receive them through rationality and
work on the journal of International Area
International Area Studies. Gwak Beom-
little by little. He called this piecemeal
“I can be wrong and you can be right.
OpenSocietyanddemocraticsociety
experienceandshouldbeadjustedaccording
Studies.
seok and Lee Jeong-eun co-awarded the
social-engineering. Just like engineers or
Through our efforts, we can move a step
Popper also talks about the democratic
to the criticisms. Popper stresses learning
With about 50 audiences of fellow
fourth prize, Tu Shao Jun the third, Kim
technicians who fix and improve machines
closertothetruth.”ThisexpressesPopper’s
society, which is the embodiment of the
through experience. People must always
students and professors, the contest
Eugene the second, and Park, Oh and Im
to make them better, society also must be
belief in tolerance and humility, efforts to
OpenSociety.Accordingtohim,unlikethe
have a humble attitude and search for their
moderatorLeeKyoung-jin(GS-06)started
werehonoredfirstprize.“Theawardisto
improved a bit at a time through free
learn from one’s mistakes, and the
Marxist claim that the root of all evil is
faultsandconcentrateonfixingthesefaults.
thecontest.AfteramessagefromChoJae-
encouragethestudents,notdiscourage.So
criticismanddiscussionsofsocialproblems
possibility of critical rationalism. These
economicalpower,heclaimedthatitwasall
Politiciansmustalsohaveanattitudetolearn
hyun,thedeanofthegraduateschool,the
do not be shameful of the rank. All five
to improve it. Based on this perspective, it
appealtoreason.
typesofuncontrollablepower.Forexample,
from their experiences and be willing to
first presenter took the platform. Tu Shao
teams have given a well-made
was obvious that Popper would oppose a
On the other hand, totalitarian ideologies
moneyitselfisnotadanger,butthestatein
learn from their mistakes. As stated above,
Jun (GS-06), a Chinese student studying
presentation,” Professor Kim Si-hong
revolution, which is usually accompanied
suchascommunismandNazismclaimthat
which money can buy all powers and
“Open Society” is a society that permits
Koreaareastudies,presentedhisworkon
remarked.
with violence and bloodshed. According to
they are the absolute truth. However,
authoritiesisathreat.Therefore,democracy
criticismanddiscussions.
effect of FTA on Korean economy.
him, violence and revolution only worsen
absolutetruthnotonlydisavowsothers,but
is not a vague expression of control by the
Secondly, Kim Eugene (GS-06) of
problems, and it cannot solve any concrete
it also does not permit criticism on it. To
people or control by the majority, but it
departmentofNorthAmericaAreaStudies
issues.
Popper, no claim can be the final truth and
couldofficiallyregulatetherulersandwhen
gaveapresentationunderthetitle“Playing
therefore believed that it was necessary to
needed, the ruled can dismiss the ruler. In
Dirty Tricks - Do Negative Campaigns
jorongi@hufs.ac.kr
OpenSocietytheory
recognize that there could be a margin of
addition, it represents the institutionalized
InresponsetoMarxism,Popperproposed
error.Nopersoncouldhaveexclusiverights
framework where the ruled can make
zorro@hufs.ac.kr

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